1.3.5 Provisioning systems
Note to teachers and students: this section is longer than other sections of the book. It could be divided into two lessons, where one lesson focuses on clarifying what provisioning systems are with Activity Option 1, and the second lesson focuses on the factors that affect how well provisioning systems work with Activity Option 2.
Helpful prior learning and learning objectives
Helpful prior learning:
Section 1.1.1 The economy and you which explains what an economy is and how it is relevant to students’ lives
Section 1.1.2 The embedded economy, which explains the relationship between the economy and society and Earth’s systems.
Section 1.1.4 Regenerative economies, which explains how circular, distributive and caring, needs-based and sufficient economies can meet human needs within planetary boundaries
Section 1.3.3 Human needs, which explains the distinction between needs and need satisfiers
Section 1.3.4 Doughnut Economics model, which explains a model for considering meeting human needs within planetary boundaries
Section S.1 Systems thinking, which explains what a system is and why systems thinking is useful. (coming soon)
Learning objectives:
describe provisioning systems in terms of their biophysical inputs, physical and social elements and social outputs
explain the roles of physical and social factors in affecting how well provisioning systems work
Picture a family involved in subsistence farming, where the family produces food mainly to meet their own needs (Figure 1). The family organises itself to plant, nurture, harvest, and prepare the food. They also manage the food waste, probably using a compost pile to decompose the waste for fertiliser. The family sees every step of the food provisioning system and their work directly supports the family's survival.
Figure 1. Subsistence farming is organised by small groups, often families, who plant, harvest, produce/process, and dispose of waste locally
(Credit: IFPRI CC BY-NC-ND 2.0)
Now, imagine a family in an urban area (Figure 2). Food provisioning from farm to table involves thousands of people in complex systems. Farming may happen in countries far away, global supply chains move food where people want it. Supermarkets have thousands of items and digital payment systems enable instant purchases.
Figure 2. Large urban areas have very complex provisioning systems
(Credit: Greta Hoffman CC0)
These two examples show how different food provisioning systems can be, depending on the context of the people whose needs are being met. So what factors make it more likely that a provisioning system is meeting people’s needs within planetary boundaries?
What are provisioning systems?
The economy is all the human-made, interconnected systems we use to transfer and transform energy and matter to meet human needs. Provisioning systems, like those for food, energy, and housing, are systems that manage how much and what types of energy and matter are used to meet specific human needs. The parts of provisioning systems are everything and everyone that provides for our needs. Provisioning systems have many connections between those parts, including (Figure 3):
extracting energy and matter (raw materials) from ecosystems
producing useful goods and services from the raw materials
distributing goods and services to the people that use them
consuming (using) goods and services
disposing waste.
Another way to think about provisioning systems is that they are the link between biophysical inputs and social outcomes or human needs, shown in Figure 4 below. This way of thinking about provisioning systems is explained below through the example of bananas.
Figure 4. Provisioning systems link Earth’s resources and systems, or biophysical inputs, with social outcomes
(Credit: Adapted from O'Neill et al. (2018))
Biophysical inputs
Biophysical inputs (Figure 5) include Earth systems processes, like the water cycle and carbon cycle, two of several biogeochemical cycles (Section 1.2.6). They also include natural resources such as fossil fuels (Section 1.2.2) and other material resources (Section 1.2.4).Â
To produce bananas, seeds or seedlings are planted in soil and biogeochemical cycles support the growth and development of the banana plants (Figure 6). Bananas are grown in tropical climates, with warm temperatures and abundant rainfall, and can be harvested all year round.
Figure 5. Biophysical inputs to provisioning systems
(Credit: Adapted from O'Neill et al. (2018))
Figure 6. A banana plantation in Brazil
(Credit: José Reynaldo da Fonseca CC BY 2.5)
The mediating role of provisioning systems
Provisioning systems (Figure 7) have a mediating role to transfer and transform biophysical inputs into social outcomes that meet people’s needs. There are physical and social parts of provisioning systems.
Physical parts of provisioning systems
The physical parts of provisioning systems include the technology, infrastructure and manufacturing for producing, processing, and distributing goods and services. For bananas, this means:
cultivate and harvest: Agricultural technologies used to grow bananas may include genetically modified seeds that resist disease and pests, synthetic fertilisers that provide essential nutrients, and irrigation methods to ensure the plants have enough water. Other technologies include the tools and machines to amplify the work from human labour (Section 1.2.3).
process and distribute: Once harvested, bananas are washed, sorted, packaged (Figure 8), and transported all over the world. Refrigeration technologies ensure bananas remain fresh (Figure 9). Transportation infrastructure, including roads and railways, and vehicles such as trucks, trains, and container ships move bananas from where they are produced to where they are consumed.
Figure 7. Provisioning systems
(Credit: Adapted from O'Neill et al. (2018))
Figure 8. A banana processing factory in the Philippines
(Credit: Shubert Ciencia CC BY 2.0)
Figure 9. Refrigerated containers are transported by ship and loaded onto trucks
(Credit: Karen Green CC BY 2.0)Â
Social parts of provisioning systems
Social parts of provisioning systems include the institutions that determine the processes and rules for how bananas get to the end consumer. Social parts also include the values and norms that influence individual and group behaviour. These provisioning institutions were outlined in Section 1.1.2 on the embedded economy.Â
Some social parts of banana provisioning include:
state regulations: governments set health, safety, employment and trade regulations all along the supply chain from the farm to table. For example, governments often require that bananas are imported unripened to avoid the spread of diseases and pests. They are usually ripened after import in special climate controlled rooms, another physical element of the provisioning system.Â
market exchanges: Bananas are delivered to wholesalers or retailers, priced and sold to consumers (Figure 10).Â
Figure 10. Bananas sold in a supermarket
(Credit: Gratisography CC0)
The state and markets are two of four provisioning institutions. These two institutions will be covered along with households and commons in Section 1.3.6 and other topics later in this course.
The role of human relationships
Both the physical and social parts of provisioning systems are influenced by dynamic and complex human relationships that vary from place to place. These human relationships exist from local-to-global levels and are shaped by various factors like culture, history and power relationships. For the banana example:
culture: social norms influence how bananas are produced, such as increased household preference for organic produce that affects the inputs that farmers use on banana plantations.
history: bananas are usually exported by countries in the Global South to countries in the Global North (Figure 11). The rules that govern trade in bananas between countries are framed by colonial histories and power differences that may put banana exporters at a disadvantage. History also impacts the type of banana we eat. Almost all bananas grown in the world are one variety, the Cavendish banana, which was cultivated after a disease wiped out the Gros Michel variety that dominated markets until the 1950s (see video on this in Further Exploration below).
power relationships: If we zoom in on banana plantations, power differences between workers and owners can result in poor working conditions, low pay and other forms of exploitation of vulnerable workers.
Figure 11. Exporters and importers of bananas
(Credit: OEC)
Social outcomes
Social outcomes (Figure 12) are the human needs that are satisfied by the things we produce in provisioning systems, and the overall human wellbeing. These needs are met by need satisfiers (Section 1.3.3), like bananas. Bananas provide energy and nutrition for human bodies to meet the need for a healthy diet. Cultural practices, a social element of provisioning systems, affect how bananas are consumed as a need satisfier. In some cultures, bananas are a staple food. In others, bananas might be a special treat, more of a want than a need.
Another social outcome is that banana farming provides jobs and income for farmers, which helps them buy things in markets to meet their needs. Decent work also supports human dignity and sense of purpose. However, working conditions on banana plantations can vary. On some farms, workers face low pay, unsafe conditions, and poor treatment as owners focus on making as much profit as possible. On other farms, power is shared more equally and workers are treated better. Worker unions negotiate for fair pay and safer conditions, helping to balance power as you can see in the short video below. Workers might even own part or all of the business, called a cooperative, spreading the economic benefits of the farm even more widely.
Figure 12. Social outcomes of provisioning systems
(Credit: Adapted from O'Neill et al. (2018))
What factors affect how well provisioning systems work?
The banana provisioning system shows the complex interconnection of the biophysical world, technology, infrastructure, social institutions, and culture. Not all provisioning systems work well to meet human needs within planetary boundaries. But they are human-made systems, so we can redesign them, a very exciting area of research and experimentation! To minimise biophysical inputs and optimise social outcomes, both the physical and social parts of provisioning systems should be addressed.
Physical parts: new technology and ancient wisdom
One part of provisioning systems that gets a lot of attention is technology. The news is full of green technologies that will produce more goods and services with fewer or renewable resources.Â
For bananas, this could mean using drip irrigation which uses less water (Figure 13), or developing new genetically diverse and resilient banana varieties that can resist disease and pests without synthetic chemicals. These technologies improve efficiency, reducing energy and matter inputs relative to social outputs in provisioning systems. Scientists agree that such technologies are necessary to better meet human needs within planetary boundaries.
Figure 13. Drip irrigation can reduce water use, improving the efficiency of banana plantations
(Credit: IWMI CC BY-NC-ND 2.0)
However, new technologies alone are not enough. In fact, sometimes technologies put even more pressure on the environment from a rebound effect (also called Jevons paradox). Efficiency improvements may lead to lower production costs and prices, which encourage farmers to produce more and households to buy more. For example, if drip irrigation reduces water use and production costs for banana farmers, they might decide to grow even more bananas. If the price of bananas falls, people may buy more. As a result, the total water used might actually increase, rather than decrease. Thus, we need social changes around business expectations and household behaviour to ensure that efficiency improvements really do reduce resource use.
In addition to avoiding the rebound effect, we also need to consider ancient wisdom in provisioning systems. Indigenous communities have many insights that can make the physical production of provisioning systems more efficient and resilient. Circular practices that mimic nature, like composting banana plants in the fields to bring nutrients back to the soil, using ground cover to prevent soil erosion, or agroforestry where bananas are planted with other types of crops to create a more biodiverse ecosystem (Figure 14). These regenerative practices put less pressure on planetary systems.
Figure 14. Banana agroforestry in Uganda
(Credit: NatureDan CC BY-SA 3.0)
Social parts: distributive, caring, needs-based and sufficient
If you read the previous Section 1.3.4 on Doughnut Economics, you know that some countries like Costa Rica are better at meeting human needs within planetary boundaries than others.Â
Recent research suggests that changing social parts of provisioning systems are important to meet human needs within planetary boundaries. In particular, we should design our economies to be more distributive, caring, needs-based and sufficient. Promoting economic equality; providing high quality public services, like transportation, education and health care (Figure 15); strengthening democracy; ensuring universal access to energy and clean fuels; and improving trade rules so that local farmers can keep more of the value of what they produce will all improve the ability of provisioning systems to meet human needs with less pressure on the environment. Here the state plays a large role in shaping the social and economic conditions that optimise social outcomes relative to biophysical inputs.
Figure 15. Providing universal public health care is an effective way to improve the efficiency of provisioning systems
(Credit: Presidencia El Salvador CCO)
To apply these ideas to our banana example, the state could establish adequate minimum wages for farm workers, provide universal public health care (Figure 15) regulate safe and healthy working conditions on farms, support farm workers to form unions to balance power relationships, provide financial support to help farmers move to more regenerative farming practices like agroforestry, and work to change the social and norms around endless economic growth and profit-maximisation.Â
Activity 1.3.5
Concept: Systems
Skills: Thinking skills (transfer)
Time: 40 minutes
Type: Individual, pairs, group
The illustration from Figure 4 in the text is repeated below to make it easier to complete an activity.
Figure 4. Provisioning systems link Earth’s resources and systems, or biophysical inputs, with social outcomes
(Credit: Adapted from O'Neill et al. (2018))
Option 1: Considering the global provisioning system of T-shirts
Watch this video on the Life cycle of a T-shirt.
How does the video relate to the provisioning system structure from Figure 4? Try to describe how a T-shirt is provisioned using the Figure 4 illustration.
Option 2: Discussion - Why do certain strategies lead to better social outcomes with lower ecological impact?
The text in this section cites research suggesting that the following conditions improve the ability of provisioning systems to meet human needs within planetary boundaries:
improving income equality
providing high quality public services, like transportation, health care and education
strengthening democracy
ensuring universal access to energy and clean fuels
improving trade and transport infrastructure.
Think about WHY these things might result in improved social outcomes (meeting human needs) and lower ecological impact. How does each one lower the biophysical inputs (Figure 3, left), while improving the social outcomes (Figure 3, right).
If you are working in a class group, you could divide the class into smaller groups and each group considers one of the factors in the bullet list, discussing ideas and then feeding back into the larger class.
If you did Activity Option 1, how might the T-shirt provisioning system be changed to better meet human needs within planetary boundaries?
Ideas for longer activities, deeper engagement, and projects are listed in Subtopic 1.5 Taking action
Checking for understanding
Further exploration
The Dark History of Bananas - TED-Ed video about the history of the banana industry in Central America. Difficulty level: easy
How Are More Sustainable Bananas Grown? An explanation of sustainable banana farming practices, contrasting them with conventional banana farming, by the Rainforest Alliance. See if you can make connections between the article and the framework on provisioning systems you learned about in this section. Difficulty level: medium.
Humans Made the Banana Perfect—But Soon, It'll Be Gone - Article in Wired Magazine that nicely captures the various physical and social components of the banana provisioning system and how that system threatens bananas themselves. The article is an excerpt from a longer book called Never Out of Season: How having the food we want, when we want it threatens our food supply and our future. Difficulty level: medium
Sources
Fanning, A.L., D.W. O’Neill, M. Büchs. (2020). Provisioning systems for a good life within planetary boundaries. Global Environmental Change, 64, Article 102135, 10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2020.102135
Observatory of Economic Complexity. (n.d.). Bananas. https://oec.world/en/profile/hs/bananas.
O’Neill, D.W., A.L. Fanning, W.F. Lamb, J.K. Steinberger. (2018). A good life for all within planetary boundaries. Nature Sustainability, 1, pp. 88-95. 10.1038/s41893-018-0021-4
Vogel, J., Steinberger, J. K., O’Neill, D. W., Lamb, W. F., & Krishnakumar, J. (2021). Socio-economic conditions for satisfying human needs at low energy use: An international analysis of Social Provisioning. Global Environmental Change, 69, 102287. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2021.102287
Terminology (in order of appearance)
Link to Quizlet interactive flashcards and terminology games for Section 1.3.5 Provisioning systems
subsistence farming: where family or other group produces food mainly to meet their own needs
composting: the natural process of recycling organic matter, such as leaves and food scraps, into a valuable fertilizer that can enrich soil
decompose: to break something into smaller parts, especially organic materials
fertiliser: a chemical or natural substance added to soil or land to increase its fertility
provisioning system: a chemical or natural substance added to soil or land to increase its fertility
system: a set of interdependent parts that organise to create a functional whole
supply chain: the sequence of processes involved in the production and distribution of a product
planetary boundaries: a model that illustrates these nine Earth systems and their limits
economy: all the human-made systems that transfer and transform energy and matter to meet human needs and wants
transfer: to move something from one place to another
transform: a change in the state, energy or chemical nature of something
energy: the ability to do work or cause change
matter: anything that takes up space and has mass
extraction: a basic material that is used to produce goods
raw materials: a basic material that is used to produce goods
ecosystem: the interaction of a community of organisms with their physical environment
consumption: using resources and products to meet needs
biophysical inputs: Earth's biogeochemical cycles and natural resources
water cycle: the stocks and flows of all water on Earth
carbon cycle: the movement of carbon between Earth's atmosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere, and lithosphere
biogeochemical cycle: Earth system cycles that move essential elements like water, carbon and nitrogen between living and nonliving parts of ecosystems
fossil fuel: a non renewable energy source including coal, oil, and natural gas, formed over millions of years in the Earth's crust from decomposed plants and animals
tropical climate: a climate that is warm all year
mediate: someone or something that sits between two groups, engaging with both
infrastructure: large scale physical systems that a society needs to function (roads, railways, electricity networks, etc)
cultivate: to prepare land and grow crops on it
harvest: the gathering of crops
genetically modify: a plant or animal that has had some of its genes changed scientifically
synthetic: any material made artificially by chemical reaction
irrigation: a system to water plants
institution: human-made systems of rules and norms that shape social behavior
values: ideas about what is important or good
norms: a social rule for accepted and expected behaviour, can be stated or unstated
provisioning institution: a group of people and their relationships as they try to meet human needs and wants
embedded economy model: an economic model showing that the economy is shaped by society and dependent on nature
state: a system that provides essential public services, and also governs and regulates other economic institutions
regulation: a rule that guides individual or group behaviour and enforced by an authority
trade: to exchange something for something else
market: a system where people buy and sell goods and services for a price.
wholesaler: a person or business that sells goods in large quantities at low prices, typically to retailers
retailer: a person or business that sells goods to the public in relatively small quantities for use or consumption rather than for resale
consumer: someone who uses resources and products to meet needs
household: a system where people living together care for each other and do domestic work, often termed the 'core economy'
commons: a system where people self-organise to co-produce and manage shared resources.
culture: the beliefs, values, attitudes, behaviours and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next
power: the ability to influence events or the behaviour of other people
organic: produced without using chemical fertilizers or pesticides
export: send products to another country for sale
Global South: a group of countries with low-middle incomes and less industrialisation; most of the global population lives in these countries, but these countries bear little responsibility for exceeding planetary boundaries
Global North: a group of countries with high incomes and more industrialisation and service-based economies; these countries bear most responsibility for exceeding planetary boundaries
colonialism: acquiring full or partial political control over another country, occupying it with settlers, and exploiting it economically
exploitation: using and benefiting from resources; the term is often used negatively to imply using power to take advantage of a situation
need satisfier: the specific ways people meet their needs
income: money received from work or investments
profit: the difference between the amount of money earned from selling something and the cost to produce it
union: an organisation formed by people who work together to achieve a common purpose or interest
cooperative: an organisation owned and controlled by people to meet their common economic, social, and/or cultural needs
green technology: technology that is intended to reduce or reverse the effects of human activity on the environment
renewable resource: natural resources that can be regenerated in a human timescale
drip irrigation: a system that delivers water directly to individual plants through a network of tubes or pipes
resilient: able to recover after a disturbance
efficiency: the ratio of resource inputs compared to outputs
rebound effect (Jevon's paradox): a situation where efficiency gains in an input are counteracted by increased consumption and production, resulting in even greater use of the input
indigenous community: the original settlers of an area (pre-invasion/colonialism) who have retained their culture apart from colonisers
circular: having the form of a circle; in this course, closing the loop on linear economic systems
ground cover: low-growing plants that help to stop weeds growing and prevent soil erosion
erosion: process where soil or rock is worn away by wind or water
agroforestry: a land use management system that integrates trees with crops or pasture
biodiversity: the variety of living organisms on Earth
regenerative economy: an economic system that meets human needs in a way that strengthens social and ecological systems
distributive: when something is widely or evenly among individuals
care: the act of providing what is necessary for the health, welfare, upkeep, and protection of someone or something
sufficient: when there is enough of something
economic equality: equal distribution of income and opportunity between different groups in society
optimise: make the best use of something
minimum wage: the lowest wage permitted by law or other agreement
economic growth: an increase in the total value of goods and services produced in a period of time
profit maximisation: the strategy where a business tries to achieve the highest profit possible