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Helpful prior knowledge and learning objectives
Helpful prior knowledge and learning objectives
Helpful prior learning:
Section 1.1.1 The economy and you, which explains what an economy is and how it is relevant to students’ lives
Section 1.1.2 The embedded economy, which explains the relationship between the economy and society and Earth’s systems
Section 1.3.6 Households, markets, state and commons, which explains four provisioning institutions in the economy and their interconnection
Section 1.3.7 Care in the economy, which explains the importance of care in the economy, the types of care, and why care is undervalued
Section 2.1.1 The household as a system, which describes households, the basic relationships of household members, and the connection between the household and the rest of the economy.
Section 2.3.1 Intrahousehold bargaining power, which explains the factors that impact the relative power of household members
Section 2.3.2 Households and gender inequalities, which explains the reinforcing feedback loops associated with women’s unequal care responsibilities
Section 2.3.3 Households and global care chains, which explains the causes and consequences of globally interconnected care work for the host and home countries of migrant care workers
Section S.1 What are systems?, which explains what a system is, the importance of systems boundaries, the difference between open and closed systems and the importance of systems thinking
Section S.2 Systems thinking patterns, which outlines the core components of systems thinking: distinctions (thing/other), systems (part/whole), relationships (action/reaction), and perspectives (point/view)
Learning objectives:
explain the importance of researching households for designing regenerative economies
describe various methods and instruments used to research households and outline their uses and limitations
practice creating at least one instrument (survey, interview, observation, etc) that could be used to research households
The International Labour Organisation and Oxfam estimate that women's and girls’ unpaid household care work is worth about $11 trillion globally. This stunning figure is far larger than the global tech industry and surpasses the output of countries’ largest, most valuable companies.
Unpaid care and domestic work is crucial for human wellbeing. Some economists just look at total household income when doing research on households and wellbeing. Here's why that limited view is a problem:
Imagine two households, each with two parents and two children:
In Household A, one parent earns $40,000 annually, while the other handles all unpaid care and domestic work.
In Household B, both parents work full-time, each earning $20,000.
Both households have the same total income, but their lives are likely very different. Can you see why?
The short video below sheds light on this issue.
Researching households is crucial to understand relationships, care, domestic work distribution, and decision-making. This information is often invisible, so how can researchers uncover the who, what, where, when, and why of this essential work?
What do researchers need to consider when doing their investigations?
What do researchers need to consider when doing their investigations?
Household researchers collect both quantitative data and qualitative data. Quantitative data, which is numerical and measurable, helps identify patterns and trends. For example, asking, "How many hours do you spend on household chores each day?" provides clear, statistical information and can help estimate the monetary value of unpaid work. Qualitative data is descriptive and explores deeper meanings. Asking, "How do you feel about the time you spend on household chores?" gathers narrative responses, offering more context and understanding.
Research often involves asking open questions and closed questions. Closed questions, with limited response options, are easy to quantify and analyse, like "How many hours do you spend on household chores daily?" The limited responses, like “2 hours”, are used for quantitative data like that in Figure 1.
Figure 1. Quantitative data gathering with closed questions was used for this ILO data on gender differences in unpaid care work and paid work, by region (Credit: International Labor Organization)
In contrast, open questions invite detailed answers and are used for qualitative data. For example, "How do you feel about the time you spend on household chores?" lets respondents share specifics about their situation. Good research mixes open and closed questions.
How could the open question “How do you feel about the time you spend on household chores?” be transformed into a closed question? What is an advantage and disadvantage of asking this as a closed question?
Research usually involves a population sample, as it is impractical to survey everyone (Figure 2). It's crucial to choose the sample carefully to ensure it represents the entire population accurately.
Researchers use different sampling methods to study households:
random sampling: Selects participants by chance, giving every household an equal opportunity to be included;
stratified sampling: Divides the population into groups based on characteristics like income or location, then randomly samples from each group, ensuring good representation of the entire population;
convenience sampling: Selects easily accessible participants, like neighbours or friends. This method is quick and cost-effective but may be less representative.
Figure 2. Research usually involves selecting a population sample
(Credit: Loneshieling, CC BY-SA 4.0)
Each method has strengths and weaknesses, which affect how reliable and useful the information gathered from the research is.
What methods do researchers use to investigate households?
What methods do researchers use to investigate households?
Researchers use various primary research methods to study households. Primary research involves collecting new, original data directly from sources. This kind of research can provide very current and relevant information. Primary research methods include surveys, time-use diaries, interviews, focus groups, observations, and valuation techniques, among others (Figure 3).
Figure 3. There are many primary research methods we can use to understand household relationships, work distribution and decision-making (Credit: Various artists, Noun Project, CC BY 3.0)
Surveys: A very common method to study household care and domestic work, surveys involve asking a list of questions to gather information about domestic activities. They can be conducted in person, by mail, or online, reaching many respondents.
Time use diaries: Participants keep a detailed record of how they spend their time over a certain period, noting activities like household chores, caregiving, paid work, and leisure. This method can provide an accurate picture of daily routines and time allocation for different tasks.
Interviews and focus groups: Interviews involve one-on-one conversations with open-ended questions to explore people’s experiences and perspectives. Focus groups involve discussions among small groups, encouraging participants to share and interact.
Observations: Researchers directly observe people during their daily routines, providing a firsthand look at household tasks and household interactions. Observations can occur in homes, community centres, workplaces, or elsewhere.
Economic valuation: To highlight the importance of household care and domestic work, researchers sometimes use monetary valuation methods:
replacement cost method: Estimates the cost to hire someone for the equivalent amount of unpaid work. For example, calculating the cost to hire a cleaner for 20 hours of weekly cleaning. Oxfam has used this method to calculate the $11 trillion figure used to introduce this textbook section.
opportunity cost method: Considers the opportunity cost, or what people could do instead of unpaid work. For example, estimating the income or value of activities given up by spending time on household chores.
Both methods of valuing care work underestimate its true worth to society and the economy. Quality care significantly improves health, productivity, education, and social stability. Everyone needs care, its value is immense.
Figure 4. How can we value this essential work?
(Credit: Centre for Ageing Better, CC0)
What are the uses and limitations of primary research methods to investigate households?
What are the uses and limitations of primary research methods to investigate households?
Understanding household care and domestic work is essential for creating a fair and inclusive economy. Researchers use surveys, time-use diaries, interviews, focus groups, observations, and economic valuation to uncover the true value and impact of these activities. This knowledge can inform better policies, support families and caregivers, and promote gender equality and wellbeing. Recognising and valuing domestic work is crucial for building a regenerative economy.
However, these research methods have limitations. Decisions about what to study, which sampling strategies to use, and whether to gather quantitative or qualitative data impact the research results. Primary research can be time-consuming and expensive, with more accurate methods often demanding more time and money to complete.
Time-use research, for example, struggles to capture accurate data when household members multitask, such as caring for children while farming (Figure 5). All household care and domestic work is complex and dynamic, making it difficult to quantify. Therefore, gathering qualitative data through more relational techniques like interviews and focus groups is crucial.
Figure 5. Household research methods often find it difficult to account for multitasking, for example where women combine childcare and other work
(Credit: Anne Spratt on Unsplash)
Activity 2.3.4
Activity 2.3.4
Concept: Systems
Skills: Research skills
Time: 40 minutes+
Type: Individual, pairs, or group
Create one or more primary research instruments to study household relationships, work distribution, and decision-making.
While a draft can be developed in one class period, testing and revising the instrument would take longer. If limited to one period, the goal is for you to create questions or an observation strategy, applying your understanding of households. This activity helps you grasp the challenges of developing a good research instrument and has you applying what you have learned about households. The work doesn't need to be perfect; it should stimulate discussion.
Subtopic 2.5 suggests a project where you can research your household using these instruments. This activity could kick-start that project if you are interested.
Here are some basic guidelines on creating primary research instruments:
Two additional, interesting primary research tools not discussed in this section:
Ideas for longer activities and projects are listed in Subtopic 2.5 Taking Action
Checking for understanding
Checking for understanding
Further exploration
Further exploration
Dollar Street - a website from the Gapminder organisation with photographs and videos of global households, mainly composed of kinship relationships. The research method used here is one not covered in this section, called a camera study. Consider what kinds of information you might be able to learn through this method, that you may not be able to obtain with the other methods described in this section. Difficulty level: easy
UN Women | Women Count - a website that collects data related to women’s issues. It includes interesting summaries of recent time-use research in different countries. Maybe there is one for your country? Difficulty level: medium
Youth Mayors Field Guide - A website that has an explanation of how to use systems and design thinking to understand a community and its problems, and to develop strategies to address them. Difficulty level: easy
The Value of Valuation - a blog by Nancy Folbre, Professor Emerita of Economics at the University of Massachusetts Amherst (USA). In this blog post, Folbre explains the risks associated with putting a monetary value on unpaid care and domestic work, but also highlights how it can bring attention to the economic contributions of care. Difficulty level: high
Sources
Sources
Fisher, D. (Host). (2023, October 26). Undervaluing the Work of Care [Audio podcast episode]. In CARE MATTERS. https://www.podbean.com/media/share/pb-4exsf-14d31a2?utm_campaign=embed_player_share&utm_medium=dlink&utm_source=embed_player
Folbre, N. (2021). Quantifying Care: Design and Harmonization Issues in Time-Use Surveys. UN Women. https://data.unwomen.org/publications/quantifying-care-design-and-harmonization-issues-time-use-surveys.
Institute for New Economic Thinking (INET) (2016, February 23). “The Economics of Care.” YouTube. youtu.be/vZEJV3kBQH0.
The WHO Council on the Economics of Health for All (2022). Time-use data can clarify crucial inputs to Health for All. World Health Organization. https://cdn.who.int/media/docs/default-source/council-on-the-economics-of-health-for-all/who_councileh4a_insight-26082022.pdf?sfvrsn=93ed4e0b_3&download=true
Terminology (in order of appearance)
Terminology (in order of appearance)
household: a system where people living together care for each other and do domestic work, often termed the 'core economy'
care: the act of providing what is necessary for the health, welfare, upkeep, and protection of someone or something
income: money received from work or investments
quantitative data: data that is numerical and measurable
qualitative data: data that is descriptive and reveals deeper meanings
open question: questions that ask for detailed, open-ended responses
closed question: questions with limited response options
population sample: a smaller group of people that researchers collect data from, drawn from the entire group that a research wants to study
random sampling: a sampling method that selects participants by chance, giving every household an equal opportunity to be included
stratified sampling: a sampling method that divides the population into groups based on characteristics like income or location, then randomly samples from each group
convenience sampling: a sampling method that selects easily accessible participants, like neighbours or friends
primary research: research that collects new, original data directly from sources
survey: a research method that involves asking a list of questions to gather information
time-use diary: a research method that involves participants keeping a record of how they use their time
interview: a research method that involves one-on-one conversations with open-ended questions to explore people’s experiences and perspectives
focus group: a research method that involves discussions among small groups, encouraging participants to share and interact
observation: a research method that involves researchers watching people in a particular context, looking out for certain behaviours or actions
monetary: to do with money
replacement cost method: a method of valuing unpaid care and domestic work that estimates the cost to hire someone for the equivalent amount of unpaid work
opportunity cost method: a method of valuing unpaid care and domestic work that considers the opportunity cost, or the value of what people could do instead of unpaid work.
opportunity cost: what is given up to get something else
gender equality: when people of different genders are treated equally
regenerative economy: an economic system that meets human needs in a way that strengthens social and ecological systems
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