Embedded Files
Helpful prior knowledge and learning objectives
Helpful prior knowledge and learning objectives
Helpful prior learning:
Section 1.1.1 The economy and you, which explains what an economy is and how it is relevant to students’ lives
Section 1.1.2 The embedded economy, which explains the relationship between the economy and society and Earth’s systems
Section 5.1.1 The state as a system, which defines the state, its parts and their relationships, and some ways to classify states
Section 5.1.3 State functions, which explains the various roles of the state in providing goods and services, protecting the population, and stabilising and guiding change
Section 5.4.1 Two scenarios: ‘Too little, too late’ and ‘Giant leap’, which explains the role of scenario planning for economic transformation and outline the two future scenarios highlighted by the Earth4All model
Section S.1 What are systems?, which explains what a system is, the importance of systems boundaries, the difference between open and closed systems and the importance of systems thinking
Section S.2 Systems thinking patterns, which outlines the core components of systems thinking: distinctions (thing/other), systems (part/whole), relationships (action/reaction), and perspectives (point/view)
Section S.3 Systems diagrams and models, which explains the systems thinking in some familiar information tools as well as the symbols used to represent parts/wholes, relationships and perspectives.
Section S.5 Causal loops, feedback and tipping points, which explains the feedback loops that can stabilise or destabilise systems.
Section S.8 Leverage points, which describes various leverage points for systems change
Section S.9 System traps, which explains how system structures, like reinforcing feedback, too weak or late balancing feedback, and/or pursuing flawed goals, can create persistent problems.
Learning objectives:
explain the role of reducing gender inequality for The Giant Leap scenario
discuss some high-leverage recommendations from the Earth4All system model for improving gender equality
In many countries, girls miss school during their periods because they lack clean, safe, and affordable menstrual products. This is called period poverty. Without proper materials or private toilets, many feel too embarrassed or uncomfortable to attend school. Over time, this affects their grades and increases dropout rates.
Studies from Kenya, Nepal, and India show that when schools provide free menstrual products and accurate information, attendance improves and embarrassment decreases. This helps girls take part in education on equal terms. It also shows how small barriers can grow into major inequalities and how targeted action can reverse them. Understanding gender inequality and how to change it is key to building fairer, stronger societies.
Figure 1. Around the world many girls miss school because of lack of access to menstrual products or safe spaces to care for themselves.
(Credit: ふわぷか, licensed from Adobe Stock)
Figure 2. UN SDG5 focuses on gender equality; it has a widespread impact on other SDGs.
(Credit: United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs)
What is gender inequality and how do we measure it?
What is gender inequality and how do we measure it?
Gender inequality means that people are treated unfairly because of their gender. It shapes their rights, choices, and chances in life. In many countries, girls and women still have less access to education, healthcare, paid work, land, and political power than boys and men.
These inequalities often begin in childhood and are deeply cultural. Families, schools, religion, and media all pass on gender roles. Boys may be expected to lead or earn money, while girls may be expected to care for others and obey. These social norms limit freedom and opportunity long before people make their own choices.
One major site of inequality is the household (Section 2.3.1). Across the world, women and girls do most unpaid care and domestic work like cooking, cleaning, fetching water, and looking after others. This work is vital to society and supports the whole economy, yet it is often ignored because it is unpaid and done in private.
This unequal division of labour creates feedback loops (Figure 3). When women spend more time on unpaid work, they have less time for school, paid jobs, or public life. This often leaves them dependent on others for money, reducing their power in the home and society. In many households, men control the budget or decide whether girls can stay in school.
These inequalities in intrahousehold bargaining power reflect and reinforce wider systems of gender inequality (Section 2.3.1 and Section 2.3.2). With less income and fewer rights, women have less say in decisions at work or in government. When women are excluded, it's harder to challenge the systems that hold them back. The cycle continues, deepening inequality over time.
Figure 3. Impact of gendered household care roles on wider social inequalities
Note: the + symbols refer to a direct relationship. As one increases, the other increases. As one decreases, the other decreases. The - symbols refer to an indirect or inverse relationship. As one variable increases the other decreases, and as one decreases the other increases.
Measuring gender inequality
Measuring gender inequality
To measure gender inequality, the United Nations created the Gender Inequality Index (GII). It tracks:
reproductive health (e.g. maternal deaths, teen pregnancies),
empowerment (e.g. education and government participation),
labour (e.g. participation in the paid workforce).
The GII (Figure 4) shows the loss in potential human development due to inequality between female and male achievements in these dimensions. The scale runs from 0 (perfect equality) to 1 (total inequality).
Figure 4. Gender Inequality Index
(Credit: Our World in Data, from UNDP, Human Development Report)
Progress towards gender equality is far too slow. At current rates, UN Women estimates it could take nearly 300 years to reach full equality. Crises like war, climate disasters, pandemics, and inflation often hit women harder, as they are more likely to fill care roles when markets and states fail.
There is also a growing backlash. In some countries, including the United States under President Trump, cuts to aid and women’s rights programmes have reversed earlier progress. Around the world, some political leaders are using fear and division to limit rights and undermine services like reproductive healthcare, girls’ education, and LGBTQI+ inclusion. These setbacks put global gender equality goals at risk.
Why does gender equality matter?
Why does gender equality matter?
Gender equality is a basic human right. Everyone deserves to live with dignity, make their own choices, and develop their talents without unfair limits.
Gender equality also benefits society. When women and girls are healthy and educated, entire communities thrive. Girls who stay in school are more likely to delay marriage, have fewer children, and raise healthier families. Women with income often invest it in food, education, and care for their families and communities. Supporting women builds stronger, more resilient societies benefitting everyone.
Women are also key participants in managing commons (Section 2.2.2). With deep local knowledge and relationships, women lead regenerative farming, forest care, and water management. Strengthening their economic position can also protect the planet (Figure 5).
Figure 5. Women are often most responsible for household domestic work, so they regularly engage with the commons.
(Credit: Ganta Srinivas, Pexels license)
Gender equality improves peace and stability too. When people are excluded from jobs, schools, or political decisions, conflict becomes more likely. More equal societies tend to be safer and more democratic. Women’s groups play key roles in defending rights and rebuilding after conflict. Peace agreements last longer when women help shape them. This is recognised in the global Women, Peace and Security (WPS) agenda.
What does the Earth4All model suggest?
What does the Earth4All model suggest?
Earth4All shows that gender equality is vital not only as a goal itself, but also as a way to reduce poverty, improve health, and protect nature. It highlights three key areas for action: education, employment and leadership, and financial independence.
Education
Education
Education is one of the strongest tools for reducing gender inequality. Girls who go to school are more likely to stay healthy, earn income, and raise well-supported families. Yet many still face barriers. Some families cannot afford school fees or keep daughters home for domestic work. States must ensure every child has access to free, quality education from early years through secondary school.
Figure 6. Education is a powerful tool for improving gender equality.
(Credit: Media Lens King, licensed from Adobe Stock)
But education is not just about who goes to school, it’s also about what students learn. Earth4All recommends systems thinking to help young people understand how issues are connected and how to create change. This textbook is an example. If students learn that care, leadership, and responsibility belong to everyone, gender equality becomes something they practise, not just learn about in school.
States have a key role. They shape the curriculum, train teachers, and fund education. By investing in inclusive, future-focused learning, they can support both gender equality and economic systems change.
Employment and leadership
Employment and leadership
Even after finishing school, girls often face barriers. Women are more likely to have low-paid or informal jobs and less likely to hold leadership positions. Many still do most of the unpaid care work at home.
States can change this. Fair wage laws and workplace protections are essential. Parental leave policies should support both men and women as equal participants, while affordable childcare helps parents return to work. Public services like elder care and after-school programmes also reduce the care burden, giving women more time for paid work and rest and community work.
Leadership matters too. Diverse decision-makers bring better outcomes. States can offer training, mentoring, and temporary quotas to boost women’s participation.
Figure 7. Laws to support equality in the workplace support women to take paid work, which can increase their household and wider social power.
(Credit: Me studio, licensed from Adobe Stock)
Financial independence
Financial independence
Money and other assets bring power. But in many places, women still cannot own land, borrow money, or open a bank account. This keeps them dependent and limits their power at home and in society. Across the world, more women than men live in poverty (Figure 8).
Figure 8. Percentage of the population in poverty by gender in OECD countries (2018)
(Credit: OECD data, created with Flourish)
States can help by guaranteeing equal rights to own and inherit property, open bank accounts, and access credit. Pension systems must include women who spent years doing unpaid care work. Universal Basic Income (UBI) and universal health care also matter. UBI provides a regular payment to all, supporting basic needs. Universal health care ensures access to treatment without financial ruin. Both help build economic security and freedom for everyone in society.
Gender inequality limits people’s choices, weakens societies, and slows progress towards a just and sustainable world. But it is not inevitable. With the right policies and social changes—especially in education, employment, and financial independence—states can help close gender gaps. When women and girls thrive, everyone benefits. Gender equality is not just a goal; it’s a foundation for regenerative economies and fairer futures.
Activity 5.4.4
Activity 5.4.4
Concept: Systems, Power, Regeneration
Skills: Thinking skills (transfer and critical thinking)
Time: varies, depending on option
Type: Individual, pairs, and group
Option 1: Gender equality and ecological protection
Time: 40 min, including discussion of the video
Gender equality is not only essential for improving care for humans in society, but also improving care for the rest of the living world. As you learned in this section, women are underrepresented in political decision-making, and this includes international organisations making decisions on climate and other ecological issues.
SHE Changes Climate is a short documentary (ca. 17 minutes) that highlights the importance of women’s voices in policy-making to help protect ecosystems and ensure climate justice.
What key points does the video make about the importance of women’s voices in decision-making?
Option 2: Gender equality and the Doughnut model
Time: 40 minutes
Earth4All recognises gender equality as a basic human right. But it also recognises that gender equality has wide-reaching impacts on many other parts of the social foundation and helps shape how we stay within planetary boundaries. This activity explores those connections.
In pairs or small groups select one element of the Doughnut Economics model (Figure 9 and Section 1.3.4) either from the social foundation (e.g. health, education, political voice) or the ecological ceiling (e.g. climate change, land use, water).
Discuss both directions of impact related to gender inequality:
How might gender inequality affect your assigned element?
How might changes in your element affect gender inequality?
Write down one or two ideas for each question. Be ready to share your ideas with the class.
Figure 9. The Doughnut Economics model showing the “safe and just space for humanity” where human needs are met within planetary boundaries
(Credit: Raworth and Guthier CC-BY-SA 4.0)
Option 3: Leverage points in a system
Time: 30–40 minutes
(Note: Students should ideally have covered Section S.8 on leverage points to complete this activity.)
In this section, you learned that gender inequality is not just about personal attitudes or isolated events. It is shaped by systems that can trap people in unequal relationships. These systems often include reinforcing feedback loops that keep inequality in place.
The Earth4All model recommends several high leverage strategies to reduce gender inequality. These strategies can help break harmful loops and create positive ones, tapping into key leverage points in a system, where a shift can lead to big change.
Choose at least two of the strategies below (more if time allows):
Investing in free, inclusive, future-focused education
Passing laws to support equality in paid work and leadership
Expanding public services to recognise and reduce unpaid care work
Guaranteeing equal rights to land, property, and finance
Providing universal basic income and universal healthcare
For each strategy you choose, answer the following questions:
What reinforcing loop or system trap does this strategy aim to disrupt?
You may need to re-read part of the section and sketch a simple feedback loop showing how inequality is reinforced.How might this strategy create a new positive loop that supports gender equality?
Explain your thinking with examples from the text or your own ideas.(Extension) Section S.8 discussed leverage points, places in a system where change has a big impact (Figure 10). If you’ve already studied Section S.8, discuss with a partner or group:
Which leverage point does each strategy work on?
Would combining strategies lead to deeper change?
You may use simple diagrams to explain these, but make sure your explanations are clear in words too.
Ideas for longer activities and projects are listed in Subtopic 5.5
Checking for understanding
Checking for understanding
Coming soon!
Further exploration
Further exploration
Gender Awareness & Public Policy | Feminist Economics Part 4 - A 15 minute video where economist Jayati Ghosh explains why gender is so important to consider in countries’ economic policies. The video has many examples of the consequences for women’s unpaid care and domestic work and paid employment of policies that perpetuate and worsen gender inequality. Difficulty level: medium
Time to Care: Unpaid and underpaid care work and the global inequality crisis - A report from Oxfam International about undervalued care work and its link to inequality. The report is available in Arabic, English, French, Korean and Spanish. Difficulty level: medium.
Periods and Girls’ Education – ActionAid UK – a short article explaining how period poverty affects girls’ education in countries like Rwanda, and how providing menstrual products can make a difference. Includes real-life examples and photos. Difficulty level: easy.
UNDP Gender Inequality Index – an interactive data platform from the United Nations Development Programme showing how gender inequality is measured across countries. Useful for exploring global patterns and comparing countries. Difficulty level: medium.
Economic Inequality by Gender - an article and associated data from Our World in Data about the relationships between gender and economic inequality. Difficulty level: medium
Women’s Rights - an article and associated data from Our World in Data about women’s rights. Difficulty level: medium
UN Women - the website of the UN organisation that delivers programmes, policies and standards that uphold women’s human rights and ensure that every woman and girl lives up to her full potential. A great source for news and data on gender equality. Difficulty level: medium.
Sources
Sources
ActionAid UK. (2025). Periods and girls' education. https://www.actionaid.org.uk/our-work/period-poverty/periods-and-girls-education
Dixson-Declève, S. et al. (2022). Earth for All: A survival guide for humanity. Club of Rome. New Society Publishers. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/369144092_Earth_for_All
Esteban Ortiz-Ospina, E. et al. (2019) - Economic Inequality by Gender. Our World in Data. https://ourworldindata.org/economic-inequality-by-gender
Harper, C., Khan, A., Browne, E., & Michalko, J. (2025, March 14). There's not enough money – so why spend it on gender equality and justice? ODI Global. https://odi.org/en/insights/theres-not-enough-money-so-why-spend-it-on-gender-equality-and-justice/
Raworth, K. (2017). Doughnut economics: seven ways to think like a 21st century economist. London: Penguin Random House.
Reardon, J. (2018). Introducing a new economics: Pluralist, sustainable, & progressive. London: Pluto Press.
UNDP. (2023). Gender Inequality Index (GII). United Nations Development Programme. https://hdr.undp.org/data-center/thematic-composite-indices/gender-inequality-index#/indicies/GII
UN Women. (2015). Preventing conflict: The origins of the women, peace and security agenda. https://wps.unwomen.org/preventing/
UN Women. (2022). Progress on the Sustainable Development Goals: The gender snapshot 2022. https://www.unwomen.org/en/digital-library/publications/2022/09/progress-on-the-sustainable-development-goals-the-gender-snapshot-2022
van Staveren, I. (2015). Economics after the crisis: An introduction to economics from a pluralist and global perspective. Routledge.
Terminology (in order of appearance)
Terminology (in order of appearance)
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