Embedded Files
Helpful prior knowledge and learning objectives
Helpful prior knowledge and learning objectives
Helpful prior learning:
Section 1.1.1 The economy and you, which explains what an economy is and how it is relevant to students’ lives
Section 1.1.2 The embedded economy, which explains the relationship between the economy and society and Earth’s systems
Section S.1 What are systems?, which explains what a system is, the importance of systems boundaries, the difference between open and closed systems and the importance of systems thinking
Section S.2 Systems thinking patterns, which outlines the core components of systems thinking: distinctions (thing/other), systems (part/whole), relationships (action/reaction), and perspectives (point/view)
Section S.3 Systems diagrams and models, which explains the systems thinking in some familiar information tools as well as the symbols used to represent parts/wholes, relationships and perspectives
Learning objectives:
describe the state provisioning institution in terms of its parts and their relationships
outline some ways of classifying states, by geographic area of authority, distribution of power, approaches to power sharing, level of involvement in providing public goods and services
A few decades ago, Panaji, the capital of Goa, struggled with waste. Rubbish filled streets, blocked drains, and caused health problems. Today, it is known across India for strong waste management. How did this change happen?
It was the result of people and institutions working together. The local government started collecting waste door-to-door and required people to sort it. Citizens learned to separate waste at home. New state-funded infrastructure, like composting centres helped manage waste sustainably. Panaji’s success shows how the state works as a system, with different parts solving problems together.
Figure 1. Cleaning up Panaji’s waste involved many parts of the state and wider society working together.
(Credit: UNDP)
What is the state?
What is the state?
The state is one of four key provisioning institutions, alongside households, markets, and commons. It helps meet human needs by offering public services like schools, hospitals, and roads. It also supports and regulates the other institutions. A state is a system made up of parts that depend on each other.
We often talk about ‘the state’ as if it were one person or thing. But it is not a single group. The state only exists through its relationships with society (Section S.2). These relationships shape how the state works and how society functions. That is why it is important to talk about state power— different ways power is used through laws, institutions, and actions — rather than imagining the state as a single actor. How much power the state has, and how it uses that power, shapes how well society can meet human needs within planetary boundaries. This issue is explored further in Section 5.1.2.
Figure 2. Civic engagement is critical to state relationships.
(Credit: GivingTuesday, Pexels license)
Parts of the state and their relationships
Parts of the state and their relationships
The state works as a system because its parts are connected:
governments make laws, set policies, and decide how to meet people’s needs.
public institutions carry out these policies and provide services like schools, hospitals, and courts;
citizens and residents live under the state and participate through civic engagement, such as voting, joining protests, or helping in the community.
If governments and institutions fail to meet needs, people may lose trust and demand change. When people feel fairly treated, they are more likely to follow laws, pay taxes, and get involved in improving society. These relationships make the system stronger or weaker.
Relationships between the state and other provisioning institutions
Relationships between the state and other provisioning institutions
The state works alongside households, markets, and commons to meet needs (Figure 3). It plays a central role by creating laws, providing public services, and supporting the others. People connect these systems through the various roles they play in society.
As household members (Topic 2), people meet basic needs like food and care, often relying on state services such as healthcare, schools, and electricity. In markets (Topic 3), people are workers, owners, or consumers, benefiting from state rules that protect people and ecosystems. In commons (Topic 4), people help manage shared resources, such as water, land, or digital tools, sometimes with state support. The state both responds to these institutions and tries to guide them.
Figure 3. The state in the embedded economy
(Credit: Raworth and Mihotich CC-BY-SA 4.0)
What types of states are there?
What types of states are there?
States can be grouped by how much power they have, how it is shared, and how it is used. The real world is complicated though, so many states fall somewhere in between the examples.
Geographic area of authority
Geographic area of authority
Local governments: focus on neighbourhood needs like waste (Figure 4) or transport
Regional governments: handle issues like water or energy that cross local areas.
National governments: oversee the whole country, making laws on defence, health, or the environment.
Figure 4. Local governments are usually in charge of waste management, as here in Lagos, Nigeria.
(Credit: Macdanpets, CC BY-SA 4.0)
Distribution of power
Figure 5. States are often classified as centralised or decentralised, but especially compared to one another, they likely fall somewhere in between.
Decentralised states (or federal states): share power across regions or cities. Local governments make decisions that reflect their communities. This often allows more flexibility. Examples include Germany, Nigeria, and Brazil.
Centralised states (or unitary states) hold power in a central government. Laws apply equally across the country, with limited input from regions. Examples include France, Rwanda, and South Korea.
Figure 6. Decentralised states (left) have less power at the national level and more power in the regions. Centralised states (right) have their power concentrated in a national government, with less power in the regions.
Approaches to power sharing
Figure 7. States are often classified as democratic or authoritarian, but compared to one another, they likely fall somewhere in between.
Figure 8. Kim Jong-un, the leader of North Korea, is visited by President Vladimir Putin, president of Russia. Both men head authoritarian states.
(Credit: Wikimedia Commons, from the Kremlin, CC BY 4.0)
Democratic states: share power through elections and public participation. People choose leaders and influence policies. Power is limited by courts, the media, and public action. Examples include Canada, Uruguay, and Denmark.
Authoritarian states: concentrate power in one leader or group, with little public input. Freedoms are restricted, and decisions may serve a few. Examples include North Korea, Saudi Arabia, and China.
Democratic authoritarian states: mix elections with strong control. Leaders may change laws, weaken courts, or control the media. People have little chance to resist. Hungary and Turkey are examples. In 2025, the United States began moving in this direction as state officials broke laws, ignored court rulings and spread fear among politicians, media and the wider public.
Figure 9. Liberal democracy index, showing how countries score on measures of voting rights, the freedom and fairness of elections, freedoms of association and expression, civil liberties, and executive constraints.
(Credit: Our World in Data)
Level of involvement in providing public services
Figure 10. States are often classified as minimal or welfare, but compared to one another, they likely fall somewhere in between.
Minimal states: offer few public services, focusing on law, defence, and protecting private property rights. The United States is often seen as a minimal state compared to other ‘western’ countries.
Welfare states: provide more services like health, education, and social care. They aim to reduce economic inequality and improve living standards. Examples include Sweden, New Zealand, and Costa Rica.
Figure 11. The logo for Caja Costarricense de Seguro Social (CCSS), which is in charge of most of Costa Rica’s health care sector.
(Credit: CCSS)
State types and systems thinking
State types and systems thinking
By applying systems thinking, we can see how the relationships within a state, between states, and the connections to wider social and ecological systems shape their ability to address challenges, adapt to change, and meet the needs of their people.
The type of state affects how its parts—governments, institutions, and people—work together. A centralised authoritarian state may act quickly but lack feedback. A decentralised democratic state may encourage participation but face coordination issues. Understanding these patterns helps explain why some states manage problems better than others.
States are also part of international systems. They join alliances, trade and environmental agreements. These ties can help states serve their people, such as through aid or shared technology. But can also create tensions when local and global goals clash. Topic 7 explores these international issues in more detail.
Activity 5.1.1
Activity 5.1.1
Concept: Systems
Skills: Thinking skills (transfer)
Time: varies, depending on option
Type: Individual, pairs, or group
Option 1: Diagramming state parts and relationships
Time: 20-25 minutes
In small groups, create a systems map showing the parts of the state (governments, public institutions, citizens/residents) and their relationships, as described in this section.
Use arrows to show how these parts interact.
Share your map with a partner, or discuss the maps as a class.
Extension: Discuss and annotate your diagrams to show how relationships might change in a centralised vs. decentralised state, democratic vs. authoritarian state, welfare vs. limited state.
Option 2: The state system and Panaji’s waste management
Time: 30 minutes
Listen to The Economist podcast about Panaji’s waste management success (ca. 10 minutes). It's the second story in the news podcast.
Identify and list the parts of the state system mentioned in the podcast.
For each part, describe its role in solving the waste crisis.
Draw a simple diagram showing how these parts interacted to improve waste management. Use arrows to indicate relationships, and write simple labels like “educates.” To find labels, you could ask “What does X do that affects Y?” and the other way around.
Share your findings with a partner and discuss: How did these relationships contribute to Panaji’s success?
Reflection: What might happen if one part of the system failed, such as citizens not separating waste?
Option 3: Researching the state where you live
Time: several lessons, depending on whether students have to search for resources, or whether a teacher can provide some to speed up the process
Research how the state where you live functions as a system.
Identify the key parts: the government (national, regional, or local), public institutions, and citizens/residents.
Find examples of how these parts interact (e.g., a local government initiative, public service delivery, or citizen engagement).
Determine how you might classify the state: centralised/decentralised, democratic/authoritarian, welfare or limited?
Look for clues such as the decision-making process for policies, funding for public services, or regional autonomy.
Write a short summary or create a diagram showing:
The parts of your state’s system.
Examples of interactions between these parts.
How you would classify the state.
Present your findings
Extension: Reflect on how the state type influences how and how well it addresses challenges in your country or region?\
Ideas for longer activities and projects are listed in Subtopic 5.5
Checking for understanding
Checking for understanding
Coming soon!
Further exploration
Further exploration
Varieties of Democracy - V-Dem collects data on democracy in countries around the world, past and present. It includes a mapping tool and other data visualisation tools where you can explore different parts of democracy, like free elections or media freedom, and compare how countries score. It’s a useful way to see where democracy is strong or under threat. Difficulty level: medium
Solid Waste Management - Panaji, Goa - a short video showing the efforts of Panaji to reduce landfill waste. Difficulty level: easy
Forms of government - a short video from the USA-based Council on Foreign Relations that distinguishes between democratic and authoritarian governments. Difficulty level: easy
Representative Democracy Remains a Popular Ideal, but People Around the World Are Critical of How It’s Working - An in-depth report from the US-based Pew Research Center examining global support for representative democracy alongside critiques of its effectiveness and comparisons to non-democratic alternatives. Difficulty level: Medium
Who Likes Authoritarianism, and How Do They Want to Change Their Government?- A concise analysis from the US-based Pew Research Center exploring global attitudes toward authoritarianism and preferences for government reform. Difficulty level: Medium
Sources
Sources
Bollier, D. and Helfrich, S. (2019). Free, Fair and Alive: The Insurgent Power of the Commons. Gabriola Island: New Society Publishers.
Easton, D. (2024). The Analysis of Political Structure. United Kingdom: Taylor & Francis.
The Economist. (2024, December 12). How to clean up India’s filthy cities. https://www.economist.com/asia/2024/12/12/how-to-clean-up-indias-filthy-cities
Silver, L., & Fetterolf, J. (2024, February 28). Who likes authoritarianism, and how do they want to change their government? Pew Research Center. https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2024/02/28/who-likes-authoritarianism-and-how-do-they-want-to-change-their-government/
United Nations Development Programme. (n.d.). 16 ways of segregating waste: Panaji's innovative model of solid waste management. https://www.undp.org/india/stories/16-ways-segregating-waste-panajis-innovative-model-solid-waste-management
Varieties of Democracy (V-Dem). (n.d.). V-Dem Institute. https://www.v-dem.net/
Wike, R., et al. (2024, February 28). Representative democracy remains a popular ideal, but people around the world are critical of how it’sworking. Pew Research Center. https://www.pewresearch.org/global/2024/02/28/representative-democracy-remains-a-popular-ideal-but-people-around-the-world-are-critical-of-how-its-working/
Terminology (in order of appearance)
Terminology (in order of appearance)
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