Embedded Files
Helpful prior knowledge and learning objectives
Helpful prior knowledge and learning objectives
Helpful prior learning:
Section 1.1.1 The economy and you, which explains what an economy is and how it is relevant to students’ lives
Section 1.1.2 The embedded economy, which explains the relationship between the economy and society and Earth’s systems
Section 1.3.6 Households, markets, state and commons, which explains four provisioning institutions in the economy and their interconnection
Section 1.3.7 Care in the economy, which explains the importance of care in the economy, the types of care, and why care is undervalued
Section 2.1.1 The household as a system, which describes households, the basic relationships of household members, and the connection between the household and the rest of the economy.
Section S.1 What are systems?, which explains what a system is, the importance of systems boundaries, the difference between open and closed systems and the importance of systems thinking
Section S.2 Systems thinking patterns, which outlines the core components of systems thinking: distinctions (thing/other), systems (part/whole), relationships (action/reaction), and perspectives (point/view)
Learning objectives:
explain intrahousehold bargaining and its importance for gender equality and human wellbeing
discuss the factors affecting an individual’s intrahousehold bargaining power
Households are people living together in a shared space, working to meet each other's needs. Generally, household members cooperate well, but they don't always have the same goals or interests.
You may have seen this in your own household. For example, your parents might agree on many things, but have regular tensions over spending, household work, or children's independence. Such tensions can reveal power inequalities within households.
Figure 1. Household members have different levels of power to meet their objectives and interests
What is intrahousehold bargaining? Why does it matter?
What is intrahousehold bargaining? Why does it matter?
Households consist of individuals with different roles and relationships. A parent's role differs with a child compared to a spouse. Roommates have different relationships than kinship members. Social norms around kinship roles, like being a mother or caring for an elderly parent, are less flexible. In contrast, roommates can negotiate their roles and relationships more freely.
Figure 2. Roommates who choose to live together likely have
more room to negotiate their household roles and relationships
(Credit: Cottonbro Studio, Pexels licence)
Intrahousehold bargaining involves household members negotiating resources, responsibilities, and decisions. Whether individuals in their households can ‘get their way’ within the household depends on their power within the household. Each household member’s power is shaped by the unique relationships inside the household, as well as external factors like culture and law.
Household power imbalances between individuals can lead to one person dominating decisions, which may not be positive for other household members. Well-functioning households typically have more equal power distribution between members.
Understanding intrahousehold bargaining power is important for household members, especially women seeking to strengthen their ability to meet their own and others’ needs. Policymakers also need this knowledge to create laws and strategies that support gender equality in households and the wider society.
Figure 3. If one person dominates the household, it can have negative impacts on other household members
Figure 4. SDG5 Gender equality and SDG3 Good health and well-being are correlated
(Credit: United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs)
This section examines intrahousehold bargaining power between women and men, noting that women often have less power in their households. The focus on women and men is not meant to ignore or downplay other genders or relationships. But research shows a significant positive impact on human wellbeing when women's bargaining power increases because women so often are responsible for direct care and indirect care of others in the household (Section 2.1.3). Understanding these power relationships is essential for improving household functions and designing economies that support caring, resilient households.
What factors affect intrahousehold bargaining power?
What factors affect intrahousehold bargaining power?
Several related factors influence a person's intrahousehold bargaining power: the emotional bonds of care work, social norms, control of financial resources, education and employment, and access to external support systems.
Together these factors influence how strong a person’s fallback position is. A strong fallback position means that a person could leave the household relationship if necessary because they have alternative ways to meet their needs. Having a strong fallback position increases a person’s independence and power in household relationships.
Figure 5. Factors affecting intrahousehold bargaining power
(Credits: Ircham, Santa92, Omah Icon, SAM Designs, CC BY 3.0)
Emotional bonds of care work
Caregivers, usually women, tend to have weaker bargaining power in households because they often care about the people they care for. These emotional bonds make it hard or impossible to leave a difficult situation. Thus, unpaid household care and domestic work make caregivers more vulnerable to exploitation.
Social norms
Social norms strongly influence household relationships and bargaining power by shaping acceptable behaviour and roles for men and women. In many households, men are seen as financial providers, while women manage care and domestic work. This norm limits women's bargaining power by making it harder for them to become financially and socially independent and strengthen their fallback position.
For instance, in some Muslim communities, the practice of purdah, where women are often physically separated in society, limits women's access to education and employment, weakening their bargaining power. In Germany, the term Rabenmutter (raven mother, who cares little for her children) is still sometimes used for mothers who work outside the home, showing cultural pressure to care full-time for children rather than taking paid work which could increase bargaining power.
Even when women overcome social norms to combine paid work and family, their income significantly declines after having children (Section 2.3.2), weakening bargaining power. And, women with paid work still do more household care and domestic work than men. The International Labour Organization (ILO) estimates that globally, women spend 3.2 times more hours on unpaid care work than men, though this varies by country and within countries (Figure 7). This ‘second shift’ of work weakens women’s bargaining power.
Figure 7. Gender differences in unpaid care work and paid work, by region (Credit: International Labor Organization)
Control of financial and other resources
When a person has some or all control of financial and other resources in the household, their intrahousehold bargaining power increases. Globally, men tend to have more control over resources within the household. This financial power spills over into other areas of household decision-making because women do not have the financial security needed for a strong fallback position to advocate for their interests and the interests of others they care for.
However, when women have their own income or other assets, their intrahousehold bargaining power increases. Their stronger fallback position gives them more influence over how resources are distributed in the household and more power to participate in decision-making. A woman with financial independence can negotiate for better food distribution, education for children, or healthcare. When women are more financially independent, with more intrahousehold bargaining power, the wellbeing of others in the household improves significantly. This is one reason why the United Nations has prioritised women’s empowerment in its sustainable development work. In addition, when men and women have more equal power in the household, care and domestic work is more likely to be shared between household members, with impacts on gender quality more widely in society (Section 2.3.2).
Figure 8. Income and control over finances increases intrahousehold bargaining power
(Credit: UN Women, CC BY-NC-ND 2.0)
Employment and education
Access to education and paid employment boosts a person’s intrahousehold bargaining power. Control over money increases financial independence and strengthens their fallback position. Education expands job opportunities, strengthens social networks, and increases knowledge of laws and rights, providing more independence. It can also change attitudes and norms about gender roles, leading to more equal household relationships and decision-making and shared responsibilities that improve the wellbeing of all household members.
Figure 9. Students in Bangladesh: education increases intrahoushold bargaining power
(Credit: Global Partnership for Education, CC BY-NC-ND 2.0)
Laws
Laws on property ownership, inheritance, employment, and human rights affect intrahousehold bargaining power by impacting gender equality. Equal rights to financial and other resources give women greater independence and stronger fallback positions.
For example, in many low-income countries, women produce 60-80% of the food, but rarely own the land they work on. Women have little power to make decisions about how land and the food produced on it is used. Ensuring equal land ownership and inheritance rights for women can change this situation. It’s so important that the United Nations uses gender equality laws as indicators of sustainability in the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), as shown in Figure 10 outlining target 5.a and its indicators.
Figure 10. Gender equality target 5.a on equal rights to economic resources, including property rights and inheritance
(Credit: United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs)
In most countries, formal laws give women and men equal rights to property ownership and inheritance. Inheritance refers to transferring ownership of assets after death. The interactive Figure 11 and Figure 12 show which countries grant equal rights to property and inheritance.
Figure 11. Countries where there property rights are granted equally to married men and women (in blue)
(Credit: Our World in Data)
Figure 12. Countries where there inheritance rights are granted equally to sons and daughters (in purple)
(Credit: Our World in Data)
However, formal laws granting equal rights to financial resources are not always enough for real gender equality. Additional laws ensuring equal pay, banning gender discrimination, and protecting against domestic violence are needed to strengthen women's intrahousehold bargaining power. These laws vary widely by country and even where they exist, they can be difficult to enforce.
Another issue is that customary laws, based on traditions and social norms, may conflict with formal laws and discriminate against women. Customary laws frequently govern household matters. Thus, despite formal gender equality laws, social norms may continue to weaken women's independence and bargaining power.
Access to external support systems
Access to social networks, community groups, commons resources, and state support programs influences intrahousehold bargaining power by acting as a safety net to strengthen women's fallback positions and power to meet their own and others needs.
Community groups can provide financial aid, legal advice, and emotional support, enhancing household decision-making about family finances, education, and health care.
For example, in Kenya, some women's groups pool financial resources to help each other. In Bangladesh, and elsewhere microfinance programs like Grameen Bank enable women to start small businesses, increasing financial independence. State programs offering childcare, healthcare, and education reduce women's dependence on male household members, allowing more women to work and improving their bargaining power.
Figure 13. Access to external support, like this microfinance group in Kerala, India, can increase intrahousehold bargaining power
(Credit: Jaimoen87, CC BY-SA 3.0)
In conclusion, intrahousehold bargaining power is an important factor for individuals, organisations, communities, and the state to understand as they work to meet human needs within planetary boundaries. Strengthening women’s financial independence, education and employment, and external support networks through policies, laws, and changing social norms will empower women and make households more resilient.
The next Section 2.3.2 examines the various social consequences of unequal intrahousehold bargaining power, while examples of strategies to strengthen households are described in Subtopic 2.4.
Activity 2.3.1
Activity 2.3.1
Concept: Systems
Skills: Thinking skills (critical thinking, transfer)
Time: 30 minutes
Type: Individual, pairs, and/or small group
Option 1 - Finding connections
The factors affecting intrahousehold bargaining power discussed in this section are related to one another in our social systems. Select any two of the factors affecting intrahousehold bargaining power and think (and write or discuss with a partner) how they are connected. Share your ideas with others in your class and map these connections on a board or large piece of paper.
Option 2 - Data interpretation practice
Examine Figure 7 below, presented earlier in this section. Use a data interpretation strategy suggested by your teacher or your course to compare the gender differences in unpaid care work and paid work by region. What is the relevance of this data to the key points of this section?
Data interpretation strategy (if you do not have one):
What is the title of the data? Clarify any questions you have about it
If a graph, what are the axis labels? Clarify any questions you have about them.
Make sure you understand the labels, colours, or other descriptive information provided.
Identify one fact from the data. Identify a second fact from the data. You may want to choose data from different regions for comparison.
Is there a pattern in the data? What story does that pattern tell?
Are there any anomalies in the data? What might explain the anomaly?
Figure 7. Gender differences in unpaid care work and paid work, by region (Credit: International Labor Organization)
Ideas for longer activities and projects are listed in Subtopic 2.5 Taking Action
Checking for understanding
Checking for understanding
Further exploration
Further exploration
Prisoner of love: Intersectional Political Economy - Jayati Ghosh interview with Nancy Folbre about the importance of care for creating, developing, and maintaining human capabilities, the way emotional bonds of care reduces bargaining power and makes caregivers vulnerable, the role of patriarchal (male-dominated) institutions in social norms of care and power to exploit the gains from cooperation. Definition of intersectionality. Difficulty level: medium
UN Women - The website of the United Nations organisation dedicated to gender equality and women's empowerment, advocating for women's rights, providing resources, and promoting global gender equality initiatives. Difficulty level: medium
Global Alliance for Care - The website of an international coalition focused on recognizing, reducing, and redistributing unpaid care work, advocating for policies and partnerships that support caregivers worldwide. Has links to many care and gender-equality related resources. Difficulty level: medium
Sources
Sources
Agarwal, B. (1997). Bargaining and gender relations: within and beyond the household. FCND Discussion Paper No. 27. International Food Policy Research Institute. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/2822720_Bargaining_And_Gender_Relations_Within_And_Beyond_The_Household
Institute for New Economic Thinking. The Economics of Care. https://www.ineteconomics.org/perspectives/videos/the-economics-of-care
International Labor Organization. Care work and care jobs for the future of decent work. https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---dgreports/---dcomm/---publ/documents/publication/wcms_633166.pdf
Our World in Data (2024). “Data Page: Sons and daughters have equal rights to inherit assets from their parents”. Data adapted from World Bank. https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/sons-and-daughters-inheritance
Our World in Data (2024). “Men and married women have equal ownership rights to property”. Our World in Data (2024). Data adapted from World Bank. https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/gender-rights-to-property
SIDA (2009). “Quick Guide to What and How: increasing women's access to land”. OECD. https://www.oecd.org/dac/gender-development/47566053.pdf
Stanley, V. and Lisher, J. (2024). “What will it take for women to gain equal rights to housing, land, and property?” World Bank. https://blogs.worldbank.org/en/investinpeople/what-will-it-take-women-gain-equal-rights-housing-land-and-property
Terminology (in order of appearance)
Terminology (in order of appearance)
household: a system where people living together care for each other and do domestic work, often termed the 'core economy'
power: the ability to influence events or the behaviour of other people
kinship: to be related by blood, marriage, adoption, civil recognition, or other long-term commitment
norm: a social rule for accepted and expected behaviour, can be stated or unstated
intrahousehold bargaining: the negotiation among household members around resources, responsibilities, and decisions
culture: the beliefs, values, attitudes, behaviours and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next
gender equality: when people of different genders are treated equally
direct care: care that addresses an immediate need, often involves physical contact between caregiver and care-receiver
indirect care: care that supports the living conditions that humans need to survive and thrive
economy: all the human-made systems that transfer and transform energy and matter to meet human needs and wants
resilient: able to recover after a disturbance
fallback position: a situation where a person has an alternative, if the current situation doesn't work out; the strength of fallback position determines intrahousehold bargaining power
exploitation: using and benefiting from resources; the term is often used negatively to imply using power to take advantage of a situation
income: money received from work or investments
inheritance: the assets that a person leaves to others after they die
indicator: a variable that measures a characteristic of a group of people or an ecosystem
sustainability: meeting people’s needs within the means of the planet
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs): 17 social and environmental goals established by the United Nations in 2015
customary law: a set of laws based on the traditions, customs, or norms of a local community
commons: a system where people self-organise to co-produce and manage shared resources.
microfinance: small loans, usually for starting or maintaining businesses and often given to women
planetary boundaries: the limits of Earth systems to absorb the impact of human activity and continue to function
Page updated
Google Sites
Report abuse