Embedded Files
Helpful prior knowledge and learning objectives
Helpful prior knowledge and learning objectives
Helpful prior learning:
Section 1.1.1 The economy and you, which explains what an economy is and how it is relevant to students’ lives
Section 1.1.2 The embedded economy, which explains the relationship between the economy and society and Earth’s systems
Section 1.1.3 Degenerative economies, which explain the problems for people and planet with the way our current economies operate.
Section 3.2.3 Law and markets, which explains how law supports market and capitalist activities through creating trust, protecting private property, and establishing legal personhood for businesses.
Section 4.1.1 The commons as a system, which explains the parts, relationships, and functions of the commons and the relationship between the commons and other provisioning institutions
Section 4.1.2 Perspectives on the commons, which explains the shift in perspectives that people in market-based economies need to make to understand and effectively engage in commoning
Section S.1 What are systems?, which explains what a system is, the importance of systems boundaries, the difference between open and closed systems and the importance of systems thinking
Section S.2 Systems thinking patterns, which outlines the core components of systems thinking: distinctions (thing/other), systems (part/whole), relationships (action/reaction), and perspectives (point/view)
Learning objectives:
discuss geopolitical threats to the commons
Local fishing communities in West Africa face a growing crisis. Industrial fishing fleets, often from large countries like China, use advanced technologies to extract large amounts of fish, sometimes with state licences that earn them revenues. Illegal fishing adds to the problem. Rising local demand for fish, driven by population growth and higher incomes, further depletes fish stocks.
Traditionally, these communities managed fisheries as commons, with rules ensuring sustainability. However, foreign fishing pressure, local overfishing, and climate change are overwhelming these efforts. Warming oceans push fish into deeper waters, beyond the reach of small-scale fishers. In contrast, industrial fishing boats equipped with satellites, radar, and artificial intelligence maximise their fish catches.
This crisis illustrates how competition for resources, unequal access to technology, and weak governance are just a few examples of how global forces can threaten commoning.
Figure 1. Large fishing trawlers are depleting fish stocks in fragile ecosystems, threatening shared ocean resources
(Credit: Igor Groshev, licenced from Adobe Stock)
How does competition for resources threaten the commons?
How does competition for resources threaten the commons?
Global political tensions often come from struggles over access to and control of resources. Geopolitics focuses on the relationship between power and resources on a global scale. It involves both political and economic power, as the two are closely connected, especially when critical resources are involved. As the global population grows and large businesses seek more raw materials to boost production and profits, competition for essentials like land, water, and minerals intensifies.
Global competition for resources like land, water, and minerals often harms both ecosystems and commons in a familiar pattern (Figure 2). About two billion (of eight billion) people rely on customary land rights. They don’t hold formal legal land titles but have used and managed the land for generations. These rights are frequently ignored when states sell or lease land to powerful businesses, prioritising tax or licensing revenues or foreign investment. This process, called enclosure, displaces commoners and disrupts their livelihoods (Section 4.3.2).
Displaced communities often move to cities or take poorly paid, unsafe jobs, sometimes for the same businesses that enclosed their lands. Meanwhile, overexploitation of resources, now treated as market commodities instead of care-wealth, harms ecosystems.
Figure 2. A familiar pattern of enclosure, human displacement, and environmental damage
The start of this section described this pattern with West African fisheries. More examples of commons resources threatened by powerful, global market and state interests include:
agricultural land: Land is often taken from commoners and sold or leased to large multinational companies. In Ethiopia, foreign investors lease large areas, displacing local farmers (Figure 3). These industrial farms grow monocultures like sugarcane, using chemicals that harm soil and biodiversity;
water: In Chile, groundwater rights have been privatised, leaving local communities and their farmers without water while large avocado plantations consume excessive amounts for their fruit exports (Figure 4);
minerals for renewable energy and other technologies: Cobalt mining for renewable energy technologies has displaced communities and damages ecosystems in the Democratic Republic of Congo. Many people have no choice but to work in the dangerous mines;
fossil fuel exploration and extraction: In Nigeria’s Niger Delta, oil extraction pollutes land and water, destroying fishing and farming commons that once supported large communities (Figure 5). Similarly, Arctic oil exploration threatens indigenous communities who depend on the region’s fragile ecosystem.
This pattern of displacement, ecological and human exploitation, often supported by international investors and international organisations like the International Monetary Fund and World Bank, as well as national governments, shows the deep connection between resource enclosure from geopolitical forces and the destruction of commons.
Figure 3. Local commoners are often displaced by large multinational firms who buy or lease land from states for large-scale commercial agriculture for export
Figure 4. A satellite image of the Petorca province in Chile, an area of water intensive avocado production that has left local residents without access to water commons
Figure 5. An oil spill in the fishing village of Kegbara-Dere, Rivers State on the Niger Delta. Oil company Shell was held responsible.
How does lack of cooperation on planetary boundaries threaten the commons?
How does lack of cooperation on planetary boundaries threaten the commons?
The planetary boundaries model (Figure 6) defines limits for Earth’s systems, such as climate change and biodiversity, freshwater and land use (Section 1.2.7). Crossing these boundaries threatens ecosystems globally. Reversing damage requires international cooperation, but political and economic priorities often undermine collective action among countries. Enforcement of current international agreements on climate and biodiversity is often weak or non-existent.
Climate change
Climate change
Warming temperatures caused by greenhouse gas emissions disrupt ecosystems, leading to droughts, floods, and changing seasons. Communities managing shared resources, like water or farmland, struggle to adapt. For example, severe droughts in the Amazon have devastated resources vital for local commoning in indigenous communities and elsewhere (Figure 7).
Figure 6. Planetary boundaries model
(Credit: Stockholm Resilience Centre CC BY-NC-ND 3.0)
Global efforts to address climate change include the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), an agreement where nearly all countries agree to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. However, many prioritise short-term economic growth over long-term solutions, slowing progress. Without stronger cooperation, global warming will continue, leaving local communities to face its impacts alone. This lack of action puts shared resources like water, forests, and fisheries at risk of changes beyond any single community's control.
Biodiversity loss
Biodiversity loss
Industrial activities like logging, mining, and large-scale farming destroy habitats and harm biodiversity and the communities that rely on these ecosystems. Indigenous communities, who safeguard a large amount of Earth’s biodiversity, face increasing threats. International agreements, like the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), exist but lack strong enforcement.
Figure 7. Change in water levels in the Rio Negro in Brazil, from October 2022 (left) to October 2023 (right). Since then water levels have fallen even further - use slider to see the change.
(Credit: NASA Earth Observatory, public domain)
How does the development of artificial intelligence (AI) threaten the commons?
How does the development of artificial intelligence (AI) threaten the commons?
Artificial intelligence (AI) could support commoning through better use of resources (Section 4.2.5). But AI can also accelerate enclosure and resource depletion, reinforcing inequalities. That’s because AI is generally seen as a tool to help make the extraction of minerals, timber, water, and other natural resources more efficient and profitable.
data enclosure: Corporations treat data generated by individuals as private property. Using AI to analyse this data centralises control, giving companies immense influence over markets and the state. This weakens communities’ ability to manage digital commons.
water and energy use: AI systems require vast energy and water resources to operate, often in regions already facing shortages. For example, data centres in India and the western United States compete with local communities for water and energy, fuelling conflict.
concentrated control: States and corporations use AI to monitor and regulate resources, often favouring large-scale projects over local needs. This centralisation reduces communities’ ability to sustain their commons and worsens global inequalities.
Figure 8. Artificial intelligence increase resource efficiency, but can also amplify power and control over resources for a few, negatively impacting commoning
(Credit: metamorworks, licenced from Adobe Stock)
Activity 4.3.4
Activity 4.3.4
Concept: Power
Skills: Thinking skills (critical thinking)
Time: varies, depending on option
Type: Individual, pairs, or group
Option 1: Connecting the dots on geopolitical threats to commoning
Time: 30-40 minutes, depending on discussion time at the end
The various geopolitical threats to commons were discussed separately, but you may have noticed that there are overlaps between them.
Create a mind map with the information from this section.
Find connections between the various geopolitical threats to the commons and annotate the mind map to make those connections clear to a reader.
What insights do you get from finding those connections? Discuss with a partner, small group or as a whole class.
Option 2: Practising causal loops with feedback
Time: 30 minutes
The final section of text about artificial intelligence as a geopolitical threat to the commons suggests causal connections with reinforcing feedback that strengthens power for states and businesses who already have power.
Reread the text sections on AI and create a diagram with causal loops and reinforcing feedback that show how state and/or business power is enhanced, and power for communities in the commons could be reduced as use of artificial intelligence increases.
Compare your diagram with another student or discuss your diagrams in a small group and make changes to your diagram with the ideas of others.
Click the arrow to reveal a completed causal loop diagram
Ideas for longer activities and projects are listed in Subtopic 4.5 Taking action
Checking for understanding
Checking for understanding
Further exploration
Further exploration
Energy Transition Learning Video - a short video from Amnesty International explaining how the demand for minerals for the energy transition affects local communities, with imagery from the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Difficulty level: easy
Environmental Justice Atlas - an online platform that maps and documents environmental conflicts worldwide. It provides detailed information on various struggles related to land, water, and resource use, helping to raise awareness and promote justice for affected communities. Difficulty level: easy
Why Chile is the Wild West of Water Rights - a ca. 7 minute video about Chile’s sale of water rights to large businesses and the impact on communal access to water for local people. Difficulty level: easy
The mineral monopoly: will low-carbon technology be controlled by a few countries? - an article by Hannah Ritchie, from Our World in Data, exploring how the shift to green technologies relies on minerals like lithium and cobalt, each of which have concentrated supplies in relatively few areas of the world. The article provides some key facts about some critical minerals. Difficulty level: medium
UN Framework Convention on Climate change (UNFCCC) - The website for the international efforts to combat climate change, including treaties, conferences, and action plans. Difficulty level: medium.
Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD): The website for the international efforts to conserve biodiversity, promote sustainability, and address ecological challenges. Difficulty level: medium.
Sources
Sources
Bollier, D. (2025). Think Like a Commoner, 2nd edition. Gabriola Island: New Society Publishers. https://www.thinklikeacommoner.com/
Federal Judicial Center. (n.d.). Customary law. Judiciaries Worldwide. Retrieved December 4, 2024, from https://judiciariesworldwide.fjc.gov/customary-law
Harvard International Review. (n.d.). The Arctic Circle. Retrieved December 4, 2024, from https://hir.harvard.edu/the-arctic-circle/
Heinrich Böll Stiftung. (2018, August 6). The socio-environmental impact of the avocado industry in Petorca Province. Retrieved December 4, 2024, from https://cl.boell.org/es/2018/08/06/socio-environmental-impact-avocado-industry-petorca-province
Koven, C. D., Steinkamp, M., & collaborators. (2022). “Competition for water induced by transnational land acquisitions for agriculture”. Nature Communications, 13, Article 28077. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-022-28077-2
United Nations News. (2024, April 30). Global food and hunger challenges in 2024. Global Issues. https://www.globalissues.org/news/2024/04/30/36605
Terminology (in order of appearance)
Terminology (in order of appearance)
Link to Quizlet interactive flashcards and terminology games for Section 4.3.4 Geopolitics
licence: a permit from an authority to own, use or do something
revenue: the money earned from selling a product
demand: the quantity of a product that consumers are willing and able to purchase at various prices
commons: a system where people self-organise to co-produce and manage shared resources.
sustainability: meeting people’s needs within the means of the planet
climate change: a change in the temperature and precipitation patterns in an area, in recent times due to human economic activities
artificial intelligence: computer systems able to perform tasks normally requiring human intelligence
governance: the process of overseeing the control and direction of something
geopolitics: the relationships between power and resources on a global scale
commoning: when a group of people self-organise to manage shared resources
power: the ability to influence events or the behaviour of other people
raw material: a basic material that is used to produce goods
profit: total revenue minus total cost
ecosystem: the interaction of groups of organisms with each other and their physical environment
commons: a system where people self-organise to co-produce and manage shared resources.
customary land right: a set of rules and norms that govern community allocation, use, access, and transfer of land
title: the formal document that states what a person's rights are related to property
state: a system that provides essential public services, and also governs and regulates other economic institutions
investment: money spent for the enhancement of human or physical capabilities
enclosure: the process that ended traditional rights on common land formerly held in the open field system and restricted the use of land to the owner
commoner: a person participating in a commons
overexploit: to use a resource excessively
commodity: something that can be bought and sold, often, though not always referring to raw materials
care-wealth: shared wealth that is created when people take care of forests, water, data, or urban spaces, and adopt these resources into their shared memory, culture, social lives, and identities
multinational company: a company that operates in its home country and at least one other country
groundwater: water that collects underground in soil or in rock crevices and pores
privatise: to transfer (a business, property or service) from public to private ownership and control
plantation: on which crops such as coffee, sugar, and tobacco are grown
export: send products to another country for sale
indigenous community: the original settlers of an area (pre-invasion/colonialism) who have retained their culture apart from colonisers
International Monetary Fund (IMF): an agency of the United Nations responsible for the financial stability of the global monetary system
World Bank: an international financial institution that provides loans and grants to the governments of low- and middle-income countries with the goal of reducing poverty
planetary boundaries model: a model that illustrates these nine Earth systems and their limits
climate change: a change in the temperature and precipitation patterns in an area, in recent times due to human economic activities
biodiversity: the variety of living organisms on Earth
greenhouse gas: gases in Earth's atmosphere trap the Sun's heat, warming the planet
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC): a global agreement to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, adapt to climate change and support climate action
economic growth: an increase in the total value of goods and services produced in a period of time
global warming: the rise in the average temperature of Earth's air and oceans (due to human activities)
habitat: the natural home or environment of an animal, plant, or other organism
Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD): a global agreement between countries to protect biodiversity
efficiency: the ratio of resource inputs compared to outputs
private property: the ownership of property by private individuals and groups
market: a system where people buy and sell goods and services for a price.
state: a system that provides essential public services, and also governs and regulates other economic institutions
digital commons: a form of commons involving the distribution and communal ownership of information resources and technology
energy: the ability to do work or cause change
shortage: when there is temporarily not enough of something
data centre: a large group of connected computers that store, process, or distribute large amounts of data
reinforcing feedback: a situation where change in a system causes further changes that amplify the original change which can lead to tipping points in a system
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